The virtue of empathy allows reviewers to envision a research study from the perspective of a research subject or surrogate, understanding what information is required for subjects to make appropriate and informed decisions about research participation. The most successful programs were ‘case-based, interactive and allowed participants to learn and practice the application of real-world ethical decision-making skills’ (Antes et al., 2009). Virtue ethics recognizes that resolution of difficult problems depends, above all, on the character (that is, on the virtues) of the people making decisions. There are almost as many lists of important virtues as there are philosophers interested in the concept of virtue. Virtue ethics, Approach to ethics that takes the notion of virtue (often conceived as excellence) as fundamental. Virtues are pre-thought out methods for achieving your values. Adherents of principle-based ethics recognize the importance of practical wisdom as well, because correct application of principles ‘requires situational appreciation—the capacity to recognise, in any particular situation, those features of it that are morally salient’ (Hursthouse, 2013). Virtue ethics teaches the importance of role models in the development of virtue. They derive from a canon focused on rules, duties, and responsibilities (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects, 1979; Nuremberg Military Tribunals, 1949; World Medical Association, 1964, last amended 2008). Even though that behavior is to be expected on the job, seeing examples of it at work can make an employee stand-out from their colleagues. For example, IRBs struggle to determine the extent to which incidental or secondary findings of uncertain significance should be communicated back to subjects. The importance of virtue ethics in the IRB Marilyn C Morris Columbia University, USA Jason Z Morris Fordham University, USA Abstract Institutional review boards have a dual goal: first, to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects, and second, to support and facilitate the conduct of valuable research. Virtue ethics is based on the premise that people can recognize excellence and that they are motivated to achieve excellence. A virtue is a moral habit which generally results in the gaining or maintaining of your values. In addition to training IRB members, a robust research ethics education program must include the broader community of researchers. Perhaps a key to understanding virtue theories of ethics is to regard them as ways to approach moral psychology rather than moral epistemology, or knowledge. Some Examples of ethics and morals Are truth, not cheating, being generous and loyal,... To live according to the rules of society. Christians have continued to stress the fundamental importance of virtue in individuals’ lives. Medical research is a rapidly evolving field, with new ethical challenges emerging routinely. Virtue theories promise that once we are successful in creating the sort of person we want to be, arriving at the correct moral decisions will come naturally. The importance of the ‘responsible investigator’ was emphasized by Henry Beecher, and has been reiterated and reemphasized by MacFarlane (Beecher, 1966; MacFarlane, 2009). We describe specific ways in which the lessons of virtue ethics suggest revisions to the IRB structure and review process, the education and training of IRB members, and the appropriate limits of regulations in research ethics oversight. And they, too, saw moral virtue as constitutive of the good life– that is, being a morally good person is a key ingredient of living well and being happy. Rather than trust in edicts, virtue ethics would encourage us to put our trust in IRBs staffed by people who are well-trained in the virtues and dedicated to navigating the best possible path through a complex and changing landscape. For example, if a patient had a disease that was fatal and … The ability to discern which ethical questions are most pertinent, and when the specifics of a case demand prioritization of one or another principle it is invaluable. The usual on-line training courses for human subject protections and good clinical practice provide an important basic exposure to research regulations and research ethics. This approach aligns with Edmund Pellegrino’s description of high quality bioethics education: ‘When properly taught, [ethics education] demands that reasons be given for moral choices, that opposing viewpoints be given an adequate response, and it encourages the laying bare of underlying prelogical assumptions in any ethical argument’ (Pellegrino, 2007: 179). If you have access to a journal via a society or association membership, please browse to your society journal, select an article to view, and follow the instructions in this box. Annas describes that the virtuous moral actor ‘responds directly to the situation in an intelligent way, one which takes account of all the relevant factors’ (Annas, 2011). Yet, the fact of the matter is that many moral dilemmas require a great deal of careful reasoning and thinking. The importance of chairs and experienced IRB members in training newer IRB members cannot, therefore, be overstated. Virtue ethics is based on a positive view of human nature, one that takes into account that humans are strongly predisposed to (a) recognize excellence in others whom they can take as role models and (b) gain fulfillment from a life lived virtuously (eudaimonia). MacFarlane offers quite a different list of virtues most appropriate to researchers (MacFarlane, 2009). In order to understand the principles of virtue ethics, we need to understand what virtue is. Surveys have been used to assess the utility of training in the responsible conduct of research in preparing participants to recognize, avoid, and respond to research misconduct (Plemmons et al., 2006). Ethics & Morality: Philosophy of Behavior, Choice, and Character. Virtue ethics has no basic concepts to abide by and so can be seen as incapable of dealing with big issues, it does not always have a view about what makes an act right or wrong. As such, there is an increasing need to ensure articulate and robust research ethics deliberation. Utilitarianism, popularized by John Stuart Mill, characterized the relevant consequence as happiness, but emphasized that happiness is manifest in higher and lower forms, and that the higher forms should be weighted more heavily (Mill, 1998). By this, we mean not only that these personnel should possess practical wisdom and the other virtues critical for IRB members, but also that they should carefully explain their reasoning and articulate their arguments to enhance the training of newer members as they learn to deliberate. As facility with these studies evolves, a body of precedents will emerge, gradually defining best practices. Create a link to share a read only version of this article with your colleagues and friends. There are several different ways that we can look at virtue. The summary, ‘act virtuously’, though, is an oversimplified interpretation of virtue ethics. However, neither a deontological nor a consequentialist approach provides sufficient direction when faced with competing or incommensurable claims or consequences. protecting institutions from legal risk) threaten these primary missions. Many common moral decisions may indeed come more easily to a person of the “right” moral character. Virtue ethics shows us that weighing competing, incommensurable claims need not present an intractable problem. Ethical problems are often complex and novel; they present themselves in unique contexts in which conflicting principles are at stake. Aristotle’s description of practical wisdom has been translated as ‘good deliberation and sensitivity to salient factors (Aristotle, translated 1886). By practicing being honest, brave, just, generous, and so on, a person develops an honorable and moral character. The fact that rule-based and duty-based ethical systems are complicated and difficult to employ also cannot make a person of good character more likely to make the right choices. Without a ‘moral foundation’, he writes, ‘the professions do indeed become simply occupations, jobs, or means of livelihood like any other’ (Pellegrino, 2007: 61). For example, courage may inspire approval of a human study of a new drug, whereas the virtue of temperance may suggest that more work on animal models would be necessary first. IRB members should be encouraged to share their expertise and advocate for the responsible conduct of research when they interact with their colleagues in the research community, outside of the IRB. Resnik describes that there are ‘four ways of promoting research integrity in an institution: education, policy development, policy enforcement (also known as compliance), and leadership.’ (Resnik, 2012). More importantly, virtue theories may be able to teach us how morals themselves should be taught. Deontology rather emphasises the use of duties and rules, and utilitarianism emphasises the importance of consequences of one’s actions (Hursthouse, 2001). Small-group discussions, led by IRB chairs or other experienced research-ethics professionals, should focus on the process of deliberation, on identifying salient factors and discussing the implications of the different ways one might adjudicate among them. Contact us if you experience any difficulty logging in. Virtue ethics, in contrast, take a very different perspective. Resnik points out that ‘virtue theories do not give us clear instructions on how to handle conflicts between the virtues’ (Resnik, 2012). The e-mail addresses that you supply to use this service will not be used for any other purpose without your consent.Create a link to share a read only version of this article with your colleagues and friends. The primary focus of the IRB administrative staff should be compliance with regulations. Susan Wolf claims that if everyone is virtuous there will be no variety or excitement in the world. We posit that the most important job of the IRB chair is to identify ethical challenges posed by research protocols, and to guide deliberation. Others disagree about the significance of profession-specific virtues: McIntyre contends that the virtues are independent of professional skills, and Annas’ theory of virtue is explicitly focused on the virtue of individual people (Annas, 2011; MacIntyre, 1981). But virtue ethics fails to do this. “Be virtuous” isn’t very practical. Virtue theorists may retort that it is in fact possible to base a judicial system on the moral notion of virtues rather than rules (modern theories of law related to Virtue Ethics are known as virtue jurisprudence, and focus on the importance of character and human excellence as opposed to moral rules or consequences). Other moral theories share a common difficulty not found in virtue ethics. Virtue can be dependent upon what society and individuals determine is morally good. 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